Natural Landscape Archives - Page 14 of 62

December 12, 2022

Proteogenomic landscape and clinical characterization of GH-producing pituitary adenomas/somatotroph pituitary neuroendocrine tumors

Mutational landscape assessment by targeted capture sequencing in GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs

A summary of the clinical data for all 121 GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs patients is shown in Table 1. The mean basal GH level was high (15.7 ng/mL, IQR; 7.2–34.1), and the average IGF-1 SD score was 7.0 ± 2.4 (SD). The mean tumor volume was 1633.1 mm³ (IQR; 651.9–4412.4), and 23.1{6d6906d986cb38e604952ede6d65f3d49470e23f1a526661621333fa74363c48} of patients presented with a high Knosp grade (≥3). All 121 patients underwent transsphenoidal surgery (TSS), and 67 patients (55.4{6d6906d986cb38e604952ede6d65f3d49470e23f1a526661621333fa74363c48}) received preoperative SSA treatment. We evaluated biological remission by postoperative oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) or normalization of IGF-1 SDS, resulting in 21 patients requiring additional therapy. The clinical data for all patients are provided in Supplementary Data 1. We performed targeted capture sequencing (TCS) of 36 genes (Supplementary Data 2) in all tumor tissue samples. The average sequencing depth was 1838.3 (range 29×–11973×), and 99.7{6d6906d986cb38e604952ede6d65f3d49470e23f1a526661621333fa74363c48} of the target regions were covered at least 50×. We detected a total of 83 mutations in 30 genes, with a median of 3.0 somatic coding region variants per tumor (range, 0–9). Among these mutations, 37 mutations in 18 genes were defined as recurrent (Fig. 1a).

Table 1 Clinical characteristics of GH-producing pituitary adenoma/ somatotroph pituitary neuroendocrine tumor patients and comparison of those with wild-type versus mutant GNAS.

**Fig. 1: The landscape of gene mutations and CNAs in GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs.**

We observed various activating GNAS-MT (57.0{6d6906d986cb38e604952ede6d65f3d49470e23f1a526661621333fa74363c48} of patients) at known hot spots in 69 patients in our cohort; p.Arg201Cys was identified in 45 patients, p.Arg201His in 5 patients, p.Arg201Ser in 3 patients, p.Gln227Leu in 13 patients, p.Gln227Arg in 2 patients, and p.Gln227Glu in 1 patient. One patient carried both p.Arg201Cys and p.Gln870Leu mutations. We also detected 3 unreported GNAS-MT (p.Gly49Arg, p.Ser111Asn, and p.Ala249Asp). The number of patients was one. We mapped the mutations to the crystal structure of the Gsα protein (PDB: 6AU6) and found that p.Gly49 is located in proximity to the GTP binding domain (Supplementary Fig. 1a, b).

We detected several gene mutations that have previously been reported in GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs [AIP, GPR101, somatostatin receptor 5 (SSTR5), arrestin beta 1/2(ARRB1/2)] and associated with the cAMP pathway [protein kinase cAMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha (PRKACA), protein kinase cAMP-activated catalytic subunit beta (PRKACB), and protein kinase cAMP-dependent type I regulatory subunit alpha (PRKAR1A)]. AIP mutations were observed in 8 patients, and a GPR101 mutation was detected in 1 patient. SSTR5 was mutated in 3 patients. We detected 2 patients with ARRB1 mutations and 2 patients carrying ARRB2 mutations. PRKACA mutation was detected in 1 patient, and PRKAR1A and PRKACB mutations were observed in 2 patients each. Most of these mutations were not recurrent in our study, and no hotspots have previously been reported for these genes.

Copy number analysis revealed the loss of SDHx

We calculated copy numbers from the TCS data using CNVkit, as described in the Methods, and detected 21 cases with CNAs (Fig. 1a). Fourteen patients showed copy number gains, and 10 patients presented copy number losses. Seven patients harbored CNAs in more than 2 genes (range, 1–5). Notably, among the 14 patients with identified copy number gains, 7 patients harbored gains in SSTR5, 5 patients harbored gains in GPR101, and one patient presented CNAs in both genes. Among patients with identified copy number losses, 6 patients harbored losses in PRKACB, and 4 patients presented losses in succinate dehydrogenase complex (SDHx) genes, including SDHB, SDHC, and SDHD.

Clinical characteristics of patients with GNAS mutations

Although we identified 37 recurrent mutations in this study, we focused specifically on GNAS-MT. GNAS mutations (GNAS-MT) are well-known driver mutations of GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, and more than half of the patients in our study harbored these mutations. A comparison between patients with GNAS-MT and those without mutations (GNAS-WT) is shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1b, c. The GNAS-MT group presented significantly better responsiveness to bromocriptine, consistent with a previous report that GNAS-MT adenomas are associated with higher dopamine receptor 2 mRNA expression than GNAS-WT adenomas²³. A bubble plot analysis indicated that the GNAS-MT group also presented with smaller tumors and lower Knosp grades, although each dataset was associated with an extremely wide range. The GNAS-MT group tended to present with higher basal plasma GH levels and better responsiveness to octreotide loading test than the GNAS-WT group. The GNAS-MT group also showed a significantly better GH change rate following preoperative SSA treatment than the GNAS-WT group. However, the percentage of patients who required postoperative therapy was not significantly different between the two groups.

Consensus clustering-based transomics classification of pituitary adenomas/PitNETs

We performed proteomics and RNA sequencing analyses in pituitary adenomas/PitNETs (45 non-functioning pituitary adenomas/non-functioning pituitary neuroendocrine tumors [NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs] for comparison, 60 GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs among 121 cases of the TCS cohort). The clinical data for all NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs patients are provided in Supplementary Data 3. First, to clarify the transomics analysis, we examined the correlation between RNA and protein expression from RNA sequencing and proteomics data. Figure 2a shows a scatter plot of the correlation coefficient of a significantly positive correlation gene, with a mean Spearman’s correlation coefficient of 0.476 (Fig. 2a). This is similar to the results of the correlation analysis of RNA sequencing and proteomics in human rectal colon cancer²⁴ and may represent tumor characteristics in pituitary tumors. Next, the whole gene was analyzed. Although 89.1{6d6906d986cb38e604952ede6d65f3d49470e23f1a526661621333fa74363c48} of the genes showed a positive mRNA-protein correlation, only 65.2{6d6906d986cb38e604952ede6d65f3d49470e23f1a526661621333fa74363c48} were significantly correlated (Fig. 2b). The average Spearman’s correlation between mRNA and protein variations was 0.330. There were uncorrelated genes and negatively correlated genes. These results suggest that there are networks that could only be identified by transomics. To test whether the concordance between protein and mRNA variation was related to the biological function of the gene product, we performed Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis. Genes involved in several hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis signaling pathways showed concordant mRNA and protein variations (Fig. 2c). These results suggest that the transomics data also accurately represented pituitary tumor characteristics. Consensus clustering subtyping was applied to RNA sequencing datasets, proteomics datasets, and the combination of these two datasets (defined as the transomics data set), exploring between 2 and 8 K-means clusters. Consensus cumulative distribution functions (CDF) and delta area (change in the CDF area) plots were generated for each dataset to determine the optimal K value (Supplementary Fig. 2). The Sankey diagram depicts the flow of cluster assignments for NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs across data types. To clarify the significance of performing transomics analyses, we examined the classification by consensus clustering using both RNA sequencing and proteomics data. The appropriate cluster sizes were determined to be K = 5 for RNA sequencing data, K = 4 for proteomics data, and K = 4 for the transomics combination (Fig. 2d). The results showed that transomics analysis better reflects protein expression classification compared to RNA analysis.

RNA sequencing classification may differ from proteomics classification because the expression of RNA and protein molecules is not always correlated (Fig. 2a, b). However, similar expression patterns were identified for pituitary-specific transcription factors in the classification of NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs (Fig. 2e, f). Although some differences were observed in the classification between the proteomics and transomics analyses, many similarities were also identified (Fig. 2d). Transomics analysis suggests that there may be molecules that exhibit variation in only protein expression that reflect the characteristics of pituitary adenomas/PitNETS to the best of our knowledge.

To explore the intrinsic cohort structure using the full complement of single-omics data, clustering was performed for mRNA and protein using non-negative matrix factorization (NMF)²⁵, which yielded between 2 and 4 clusters for the single-omics analyses (Fig. 2g). A GO analysis of a group of molecules with significantly higher expression in Cluster 3 by proteomics revealed the terms GH synthesis, secretion and action (Supplementary Data 4). Transcriptomic data were only able to distinguish between NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, whereas proteomics data were able to distinguish among GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs with and without GNAS mutation. Therefore, we focused on both proteomics and genomics approaches for the characterization of GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs.

Proteogenomic characterization of nonfunctioning and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs

The samples in which the proteins could not be identified by proteomics analysis were excluded. The protein expression of key transcription factors was compared between NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs using uniform manifold approximation and projection (UMAP) analysis (Supplementary Fig. 3). The results showed that NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs could be divided into 2 distinct groups, likely because NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs have distinctly different protein expression characteristics. However, among GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, no clear differences in protein expression characteristics were identified between cases with and without GNAS-MT. The expression of key transcription factors that contributed to pituitary differentiation visualized using a feature plot, revealed that nuclear receptor subfamily 5 Group A member 1 (NR5A1) and GATA-binding protein 3 (GATA3) are expressed at high levels in most NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs samples, with some GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs also demonstrating high expression levels. In contrast, POU class 1 homeobox 1 (POU1F1), a key regulatory factor, was highly expressed in GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, whereas POU1F1 and GH were not expressed in NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs. SSTR5 was expressed heterogeneously in most GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, with some expression observed in NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs (Fig. 3a).

**Fig. 3: Nontargeted proteomics analysis of pituitary adenomas/PitNETs.**

The Brunner–Munzel test was used to quantitatively compare protein expression levels between NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GH-producing adenomas and between GNAS-WT and GNAS-MT GH-producing adenomas. A total of 7300 differentially expressed molecules were identified between NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, and 714 differentially expressed molecules were identified between GNAS-WT and GNAS-MT GH-producing adenomas. To evaluate the protein expression profiles of the 458 molecules that were identified as significantly differentially expressed in both comparisons (Fig. 3b, c), gene ontology (GO) analysis was performed. GO analysis (http://geneontology.org) revealed that the GNAS mutation influenced several binding functions and GPCR pathways (Supplementary Data 5). Considering these results collectively, we hypothesize that GNAS-MT induce GPCR pathways in GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, influencing endocrinological characteristics, such as the response to drug treatments.

Correlation between the protein expression profile and clinical characteristics of Acromegaly

We first evaluated the expression of some characteristic proteins by pathological analysis. In our study, the immunohistochemistry (IHC) score for SSTR2, which is known to serve as the primary SSA receptor in GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, did not differ between the GNAS-WT and GNAS-MT groups (Fig. 4a). Similarly, the IHC scores for GH and the CAM5.2 cytokeratin IHC pattern did not differ between the two groups (Fig. 4b, c).

**Fig. 4: Protein expression levels in NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs, *GNAS*-WT GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, and *GNAS*-MT GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs.**

Based on the results of the nontargeted proteomics analysis, we compared protein expression levels between three groups: NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs, GNAS-WT GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs, and GNAS-MT GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs. The protein expression level of T-box transcription factor 19 (TBX19, also known as TPIT) did not differ among the 3 groups, whereas the expression level of POU1F1 was significantly higher in the GNAS-WT and GNAS-MT groups than in the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs group (Fig. 4d, e), consistent with the regulation of transcription factors during pituitary development. The protein expression levels of AIP were significantly higher in the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs group than in the GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs group (Fig. 4f). Conversely, SSTR2 expression was significantly higher in the GNAS-WT and GNAS-MT groups than in the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs group (Fig. 4g).

Next, we focused on 4 molecules: SSTR5, sigma nonopioid intracellular receptor 1 (SIGMAR1), adhesion G protein–coupled receptor V1 (ADGRV1), and sortilin-related VPS10 domain–containing receptor 3 (SORCS3). These molecules are involved in GPCR activity and were among the 458 identified differentially expressed proteins. The expression levels of these molecules were significantly different between the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs groups: SSTR5 expression was higher in the GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs group than in the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs group, and there was no difference in expression with or without GNAS-MT (Fig. 4h). The SSTR2/5 protein expression ratio was not significantly different between the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs groups, nor were they expressed with or without GNAS-MT in the GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs group (Fig. 4i). SIGMAR1 expression was lower in the GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs group than in the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs group and was lower in the GNAS-MT groups than in the GNAS-WT group (Fig. 4j). ADGRV1 expression was not significantly different between the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs groups, nor was it different with or without GNAS-MT in the GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs group (Fig. 4k). SORCS3 expression was higher in GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs GNAS-WT than in NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs and lower in GNAS-MT expression than in GNAS-WT (Fig. 4l). To determine whether these GPCR-related molecules affect the clinical characteristics of acromegaly, we analyzed the correlations between the expression levels of these four proteins and clinical characteristics, including the GH change rate following the octreotide loading test and the tumor volume change rate following SSA treatment. The expression levels of ADGRV1 and SORCS3 were correlated with the GH change rate following the octreotide loading test (Supplementary Fig. 4).

The GH change rate following the octreotide loading test, which has been reported to correlate with the SSTR2 mRNA expression level, did not correlate with the SSTR2 or SSTR5 protein expression levels or with the SSTR2/5 protein expression ratio (Fig. 5a–c). We then performed correlation analyses between all of the protein expression values derived from the nontargeted proteomics analysis and the GH change rate following the octreotide loading test. We detected positive correlations for ATPase sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ transporting 2 (ATP2A2) and AT-rich interaction domain 5B (ARID5B) with the GH change rate following the octreotide loading test, although no correlation was observed for ATPase sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ transporting 1 (ATP2A1) (Fig. 5d–f). The protein expression levels of ATP2A2 and ATP2A1 were significantly lower in the GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs group than in the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs group, and ARID5B expression was significantly higher in the GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs group. These 3 molecules were expressed at significantly lower levels in the GNAS-MT group than in the GNAS-WT group (Fig. 5g–i)

**Fig. 5: Correlation between protein expression levels and GH change rates in the octreotide loading test.**

To clarify the pathology of functional pituitary adenomas/PitNETS, we performed correlation analyses between the nontargeted proteomics data and the tumor volume change rate following SSA treatment because it is important to consider not only the production and secretion of hormones but also tumorigenesis. SSTR2 expression, SSTR5 expression, and the SSTR2/5 ratio did not correlate with the tumor volume change rate following SSA treatment (Fig. 6a–c). The tumor volume change rate following SSA treatment was correlated with the expression levels of WWC family member 3 (WWC3) and serine incorporator 1 (SERINC1) and tended to correlate with zinc finger AN1-type containing 3 (ZFAND3) expression (Fig. 6d–f). The expression of WWC3 was significantly lower in the GNAS-MT group than in the GNAS-WT group, whereas SERINC1 and ZFAND3 expression levels were significantly higher in the GNAS-MT group than in the GNAS-WT group (Fig. 6g–i).

**Fig. 6: Correlation between protein expression levels and tumor volume change rate in the SSA test.**

These differentially expressed protein candidates from the nontargeted proteomics analysis were evaluated by pathological examination. Sections were stained with SIGMAR1, ATP2A2, ARID5B, WWC3, and SERINC1 (Fig. 7a–e), and IHC scoring was performed as described in the Methods. SIGMAR1 was significantly increased in the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs group compared with the GNAS-MT group. (Fig. 7f). ATP2A2 was significantly increased in the NFPAs/non-functioning PitNETs group compared with the GHomas/somatotroph PitNETs groups (Fig. 7g). ARID5B was significantly increased in the GNAS-WT group compared with the GNAS-MT group (Fig. 7h). There were no significant differences in WWC3 and SERINC1 among the three groups. (Fig. 7i, j). These expression patterns were similar to the trends observed using nontargeted proteomics analysis.

**Fig. 7: Immunohistochemistry of differentially expressed candidates in nontargeted proteomics.**

December 11, 2022

On January 1, 2023, Colorado stores and restaurants will begin charging a 10 cent bag fee for single-use plastic and paper bags, until January 2024 when a ban goes into effect.

(COLORADO SPRINGS) — Starting up Jan. 1, 2023, stores in Colorado will start off charging a 10-cent fee for each bag, to present buyers with a recycled paper or solitary-use plastic bag as component of a statewide mandate. The mandate was put in position by the Plastic Air pollution Reduction Act which was signed into legislation in July 2021.

The evaluate goes into whole influence on Jan. 1, 2024, when one-use plastics will be banned from outlets and retail foodstuff institutions, with the exception of dining establishments and tiny shops that run only in Colorado and have a few or less areas – all those merchants will still be permitted to deliver customers with one-use plastic bags.

The fee goes into impact at the commencing of 2023 as a transitionary time period to prepare retailers and consumers to go without the need of single-use plastic luggage by the start off of 2024.

Businesses will be expected by law to charge the 10-cent for every bag price in the course of 2023, and people that do not comply could face a $500 good for a second violation or $1,000 for a 3rd or subsequent violation. Local governments will be accountable for enforcement.

After Jan. 1, 2024, stores can only offer you recycled paper bags at the stage of sale, with the 10-cent or bigger bag charge imposed on the acquire.

The transfer is in an energy to stimulate prospects to provide their individual reusable buying baggage to suppliers, so solitary-use plastic luggage really don’t stop up in streets and trees, polluting Colorado’s lovely purely natural landscape.

Walmart claimed in a statement that their model will shift to paper luggage for supply, and they will no longer be offering single-use plastic or paper luggage at checkout or pickup.

Examine Walmart’s whole statement sent to FOX21 Information underneath:

Commencing Sunday, January 1, 2023, Walmart shops in Colorado will no for a longer time present single-use plastic or paper bags at checkout or pickup. Supply will shift to paper bags. We are doing the job really hard to assure a seamless and easy shift to reusable baggage for our consumers and associates. Eradicating solitary-use bags is component of our commitment to realize zero waste throughout our functions and finally change little by little toward a circular economy designed on advancing reuse, refill and recycling habits.

Lauren Willis, International Communications Director – Western U.S.

In addition to plastic bags, the act prohibits eating places from applying an expanded polystyrene (Styrofoam) merchandise for use as a container for completely ready-to-take in meals.

Retail food establishments that obtain Styrofoam products and solutions ahead of Jan. 1, 2024, can continue on to use the products and solutions right up until their source is depleted.

Exceptions to the law include things like:

Resources utilized in the packaging of pharmaceutical medication, professional medical products, or dietary dietary supplements
Any tools or elements utilised to manufacture pharmaceutical drugs, health care devices, or dietary dietary supplements
The carryout bag price does not utilize to any human being who can offer proof to the retailer that they are a participant in a federal or state meals assistance program
Eating places and tiny outlets that operate exclusively in Colorado and have three or less destinations can go on to deliver one-use plastic luggage

December 10, 2022

Everglades: An Ever-Changing Environment | Answers in Genesis

The Everglades features one of the most diverse ecosystems on earth—with a surprising geological history.

There are no other Everglades in the world. They are, they have always been, one of the unique regions of the earth. . . . Their vast glittering openness, . . . the racing free saltness and sweetness of their massive winds, under the dazzling blue heights of space. They are unique also in the simplicity, the diversity, the related harmony of the forms of life they enclose.
–Marjory Stoneman Douglas, The Everglades: River of Grass

Turn onto Route 821 out of Miami, Florida, leaving behind the palm-lined streets and glinting skyscrapers, and drive about an hour west. When you step out of the car, you’ll find yourself in an entirely different ecosystem. Alligators float like logs in the foreboding swamps. Waterways and estuaries squiggle a path among the emerald landscape. Herons wade among the lily pads. Airboats glide over the shallow water. Welcome to the Everglades!

The Everglades sits like a jewel, unique in the United States’ collection of varied landscapes. Each year, a million people come to experience one of the most diverse ecosystems in the world. But few know that they are visiting more than just southern Florida. Deep under its surface, the Everglades is built on rock that was once part of Africa. This wet wonderland has gone through many iterations throughout earth’s history. In fact, the Everglades has been an ever-changing ecosystem since the biblical global flood cataclysm.

Land of Grassy Water

Before Spanish cartographers ever explored or even saw the land between the Gulf and Atlantic coast, they included the Everglades on their maps as Laguna del Espiritu Santo (“Lake of the Holy Spirit”). In 1773, after mapping the coast of Florida, British surveyor John Gerard de Brahm first used the term “Everglades.” But the Seminole, some of the original people who lived in the Everglades, call it Pahokee, meaning “Grassy Waters”—perhaps the best description of all.

Far from a mere swamp, the 1.5-million-acre Everglades is a natural subtropical wetland—the largest remaining in the US. Beginning near Orlando with the Kissimmee River, that water system empties into Lake Okeechobee—the big blue dot you see on an aerial map of Florida. Water leaving Okeechobee forms a slow-moving river spanning 60 miles (97 km) wide and over 100 miles (160 km) long, flowing south across a flat limestone shelf which creates the watery wilderness. All this water eventually empties into Florida Bay at the southern end of the state.

Sawgrass Marshes

Sub-Biome

Sawgrass marshes are the swampy areas most associated with the Everglades. Sawgrass grows well in slow-flowing water. Submerged and floating plants grow there, such as bladderworts and waterlilies. Alligators nest in the dense grass growth, and where water channels flow between these grassy prairies, other animals such as snakes, turtles, and fish thrive.

Pineland

Sub-Biome

In the most elevated part of the Everglades, the pinelands grow in the driest portion, which experiences little flooding. These pinelands are mostly made up of South Florida slash pine. These pine trees rely on fire to thrive. The flames burn away excess undergrowth on the forest floor, and the heat opens the pine cones to spread seeds. It’s a good thing because their dry needles are the perfect kindling for flames. God designed these trees with a fire-resistant bark that protects them from the heat.

Hardwood Hammocks

Sub-Biome

In some areas of the Everglades, small islands rise 1–3 feet (.3–.9 m) above the water and are covered in trees. On these islands—known as tropical hardwood hammocks—sometimes only an acre large (4,000 m²), different trees grow, from subtropical to hardwood trees such as southern live oaks and royal palms. Though difficult for humans to navigate due to the sharp saw palmettos growing at the base of the trees, animals from mammals to reptiles and amphibians find the islands a perfect place to live.

Cypress Swamps

Sub-Biome

Throughout the southern Everglades, cypress swamps adorn the landscape, from the coast to the sawgrass marshes. Cypress trees are conifers (like pines and fir trees) suited to thrive in flooded areas, especially the brackish water where fresh and salt water converge. Their roots, called knees, stick out of the water. Scientists believe these knees help provide oxygen to the root tissue, sort of like a snorkel, and might add structural support so the trees stay anchored in the soggy soil. For further security, cypresses have buttressed trunks with wide roots on every side.

Wet Prairies

Sub-Biome

Like sawgrass marshes, wet prairies are slightly elevated with only about four inches of water flowing over them. Wet prairies host a greater diversity of plants and offer a home to snails, crayfish, and other creatures that serve as food for the wading birds that live in the area. Alligators also inhabit these prairies, digging holes for their nests. Their digging makes ponds that stay filled with water even through the dry season, providing a habitat for turtles and fish and a watering hole for small mammals that, in turn, feed the alligators.

Mangroves

Sub-Biome

The Everglades’ coast and inner estuaries are full of mangrove forests. In fact, the Everglades is home to the largest protected mangrove forest in the Western hemisphere. Mangrove trees grow well in harsh coastal conditions and tolerate tidal water where the fresh water in the Everglades mixes with salt water from Florida Bay. Some mangrove species expel extra salt through their leaves and others can filter the salt at their roots. Mangroves have stilt-like roots. In addition to being a habitat for many species of birds in their branches and fish at their roots, mangrove forests absorb the force of hurricane winds and storm surges that would erode the landscape.

Evolution and the Everglades

How did the Everglades become the landscape it is today? It depends on who you ask. An evolutionist will tell you that around 300 million years ago, North America collided with Africa to form the Appalachian Mountains. Evolutionists believe that the two continents merged as part of the supercontinent Gondwana, thus connecting what is now the foundation of Florida with North America.

Then, supposedly about 180 million years ago, continental rifting began to separate North America from Gondwana. The land that would become Florida was torn from Africa and stayed connected to North America, southeast of the Appalachians where the two continents had collided.

While part of Africa, Florida was initially above water. Now part of North America, during the supposedly cooler Jurassic Period, the land that became Florida formed a submerged platform, a shallow marine environment in which sedimentary rocks were deposited. Through the subsequent Cretaceous Period, most of Florida remained a tropical sea floor of varying depths on which lime accumulated.

As land began to submerge, the fluctuating sea levels compressed the layers of lime, sand, and fossil shells. The resulting porous limestone formations that developed between 70 and 25 supposed million years ago created the Floridan Aquifer, which serves as the main source of fresh water for the northern portion of Florida. However, under the Everglades, this aquifer lies beneath thousands of feet of flat, non-porous sedimentary rock layers from Lake Okeechobee to the southern tip of the peninsula. Because these rock layers are impermeable, the surface water cannot soak through, but instead flows across the surface, creating the watery Everglades.

But how much of that origin story is true?

The Everglades According to Genesis

Florida’s foundational rocks clearly date back to the early yearlong global flood cataclysm period only about 4,350 years ago. The fountains of the great deep had broken up (Genesis 7:11) to rip apart the earth’s outer crust into huge plates that rapidly moved across the globe. The resulting earthquakes generated enormous tsunamis that pulverized the continental basement rocks, wiping away the pre-flood world and dumping the sediments back onto that flat eroded surface.

Two of those plates carried Africa and North America. Before the mid-point of the flood, Africa slammed into eastern North America, buckling and uplifting the early flood sediment layers on the North American plate to form the Appalachian Mountains. But the internal upheaval within the earth continued so that the African plate was then ripped away from the new eastern edge of North America. Far from a clean break, the western edge of Africa remained, merging with eastern North America.

That remnant of Africa became the platform on which Florida was built.

That remnant of Africa became the platform on which Florida was built. In the latter stages of the flood, limestone layers accumulated across that platform as the flood waters washed over it. Then the flood waters retreated, partially exposing the land of Florida. In the immediate post-flood period, Florida was still mostly covered by reefs that created the limestone layer that lies directly below the surface today. This would have been especially true during high sea levels prior to the post-flood ice age.

Having been heated by super volcanoes, the very warm post-flood ocean waters spawned massive super hurricanes that, in the higher latitudes, dumped feet of snow on the colder interiors of the North American continent. Residual volcanic dust in the atmosphere meant summers were cool, so the snow accumulated continually and within decades the snow layers compressed to form the vast ice sheets and glaciers of the post-flood ice age.

Once this ice age ended after several centuries, the climate warmed and became tropical. With the warm, wet conditions and an impermeable bedrock beneath the land surface, water accumulated and flowed across southern Florida, establishing the Everglades.

Changing . . . Again

The Florida Everglades have become home to invasive species of all kinds, from the Argentine tegu to the Asian clam. But perhaps the most destructive of these invaders is the Burmese python.

The exotic pet trade brought these southeastern Asian natives to Florida. But their owners often realize too late that they don’t have the space for a creature that can grow up to 200 pounds (90 kg) and 20 feet (6 m) long. Some python owners release their pets into the Everglades—and with a balmy climate like that of their eastern home, Burmese pythons thrive in their new habitat.

With the ability to lay between 50 and 100 eggs per year and consume creatures nearly 115{6d6906d986cb38e604952ede6d65f3d49470e23f1a526661621333fa74363c48} of their body weight, the Burmese python has no natural predators in the US and has overtaken the Everglades since the 1990s. Experts believe tens or hundreds of thousands of pythons now call southern Florida home.

Sitting at the top of the food chain, Burmese pythons have wreaked havoc on an environment that once teemed with animals like raccoons, bobcats, rabbits, and foxes. In fact, one study found that since the python’s introduction, the populations of these species has dropped as much as 99{6d6906d986cb38e604952ede6d65f3d49470e23f1a526661621333fa74363c48} in some areas. These insatiable invaders are changing the face of the Everglades yet again.

Ever-Changing Everglades

Today, visitors can bike around the pinelands, kayak among the mangroves, or wade into the cypress forest. A 65-foot (20 m) observation tower even gives an elevated perspective of this wholly unique landscape we embrace as part of our diverse country. When he dedicated the Everglades as a National Park in 1947, President Harry S. Truman said, “Here are no lofty peaks seeking the sky, no mighty glaciers or rushing streams wearing away the uplifted land. Here is land, tranquil in its quiet beauty.”

But the Everglades’ tranquil beauty doesn’t reflect the world before God’s flood of judgment reshaped the earth’s surface. Nor does it come close to the beauty of the new heavens and earth that God will refashion after his final judgment. For now, this gorgeous land of grassy water reminds us that, though no part of this earth is unchanging—not even the Everglades—the steadfast love of the Creator “is from everlasting to everlasting” (Psalm 103:17).

Former Inhabitants

When the land now forming Florida first emerged from the flood waters and stabilized, the climate was evidently quite warm and comfortable. Once the flood ended, the animals exited the ark. After a few years of reproduction and migration, some creatures eventually arrived in Florida and set up home there. The lushly vegetated land was initially home to horses, elephants, and saber-tooth cats, and then sloths, giant armadillos, and llamas. Offshore, large sharks patrolled, preying on whales—we still find their teeth and bones fossilized in lime deposits today.

But soon the climate turned cold as the ice age of a few hundred years brought on extreme global weather patterns. While the giant continental ice sheets and glaciers covered only the high latitudes of the continental land surfaces, the sea level fluctuated, falling as much as 300 feet (~90 m) and sometimes rising by as much as 100 feet (~30 m) higher than today. The falling sea level made land bridges for animals to cross as they migrated across the globe.

Animal populations changed. Now mammoths, mastodons, giant lions, dire wolves, saber-toothed cats, giant sloths, and giant beavers roamed Florida. Their large size made them suited to survive the changed climatic conditions, displacing the animals that couldn’t.

When the ice age ended and the climate warmed again, those giant mammals died out, while others thrived, living in what progressively became the ecosystems of today’s Everglades.

Today’s Inhabitants

A delightful range of creatures call the Everglades home today, including some common animals like black bears, raccoons, and white-tailed deer. Some residents are a bit more exotic. Of those residents, more than 360 species are birds. Bright pink roseate spoonbills strain shrimp from the waters. Anhingas, also called snakebirds, swim through the water with only their heads and necks above the surface. The snail kite, a raptor, feeds almost entirely on the apple snail, which grows to the size of a tennis ball.

Almost 100 species of butterflies flitter through the Everglades. Softshell turtles rest on logs, and little grass frogs, less than half an inch long (1.2 cm), hide in the wet grass. Alligators slide quietly into the brackish water. Unsightly toadfish skim the bottom of the waters, making eerie toad-like croaks.

Originally, the Everglades spanned more than 4,000 square miles (10,000 sq. km). Today, only half of that space remains undeveloped and preserved. With the loss of ecosystems, many creatures lost their habitats. Nearly 40 species in the Everglades are listed as threatened or endangered, such as the West Indian manatee and the American crocodile. The most critically endangered species, however, is the panther. Scientists estimate only 100–130 remain in the wild.

Dr. Andrew A. Snelling holds a PhD in geology from the University of Sydney and has worked as a consultant research geologist in both Australia and America. Author of numerous scientific articles, Dr. Snelling is now director of research at Answers in Genesis–US

December 9, 2022

For the Love of the Buffalo | Smithsonian Voices

A group of several bison with dark fur traverses a light green colored landscape of grasslands as rays of late afternoon light stream through several gold-tinged clouds. In the distance are more bison and the horizon is framed by distant mountains. — A herd of bison roam through the summer time sunset around the Eastern Entrance of the Rockies in close proximity to Choteau, Montana.
Audrey Hall

Photographer Audrey Hall trekked through the Yellowstone Mountains in the dead of winter season in 2020. It was destructive 20 levels and she was on a mission— to seize the American bison on movie. Now, people pictures and excerpts from the e book Bison: Portrait of an Icon will be shared for the duration of an evening lecture on November 14th at the Countrywide Museum of Normal Record.

Covering subjects from plan and heritage to spirituality and modern day working day symbolism, writer Chase Reynolds Ewald put in hours on zoom calls interviewing scientists, historians and Indigenous persons for the reserve.

“Neither of us are the definitive authority on Bison, we just painted this portrait to introduce an viewers to this unbelievable animal and the West,” Corridor mentioned.

None — Audrey Corridor (still left) and Chase Reynolds Ewald are extensive-time good friends and collaborators. Their guide, “Bison: Portrait of an Icon” included stunning landscapes throughout the greater Yellowstone ecosystem such as the Bridger Mountain foothills of North Bridger Bison, around Wilsall, Montana.

Audrey Hall

In their efforts to highlight the United States’ National Mammal, the two Ewald and Hall poured a year’s really worth of their time into the job. While this e-book turned a work of enthusiasm and dedication, both of those women of all ages said they didn’t want to ignore the challenging background of the bison, or buffalo.

The French explorer Samuel de Champlain coined the phrase “buffalo” from the word “boeuf,” which is the French term for ox. Immediately after 1625, the term “buffalo” turned synonymous with the American bison.

Matthew Sanger, a curator at the Nationwide Museum of the American Indian, thinks there is a general regard and enjoy for the large, fluffy animal but he is not certain of just how significantly folks know about its background.

“As inhabitants amounts of bison increase, men and women are coming into contact with them extra. I consider there is an appreciation for bison, but I’m not totally confident how several folks have a recognition of the history of our interaction with them and why there is so number of still left compared to the unbelievable selection there ended up prior to,” he explained. “It’s these types of an essential tale and I’m not certain how numerous of our higher school textbooks are masking it these times,” he stated.

In advance of the nineteenth century, buffalo roamed throughout North America’s Fantastic Plains with an believed populace of 30 to 100 million. They ended up a vital element to the way of lifetime for quite a few Native American tribes and nations. In functions of genocide in opposition to American Indigenous peoples, the U.S. federal government slaughtered bison to reduce a supply of food stuff, apparel and shelter from Plains Indians.

And but, all through this time of destruction, the Smithsonian Establishment was commencing efforts to conserve these prairie staples. The get the job done of famed taxidermist William Temple Hornaday was important. In 1886, Hornaday was sent out to gather bison specimens for the Nationwide Museum. On his expedition, Hornaday turned involved with how number of bison he encountered in the wilderness, ultimately transforming his mission from searching bison for screen to preserving them in the wild.

In a letter published from Hornaday to professor George Brown Goode, the former director of the Countrywide Museum, Hornaday wrote about wanting the Smithsonian Institution to support his initiatives to guarantee the survival of the huge mammal.

“In see of the truth that therefore considerably this authorities has done almost nothing to preserve alive any specimens of the American Bison, the most striking and conspicuous species on this continent, I have the honor to suggest that the Smithsonian Establishment, or the National Museum…take rapid techniques to procure either by gift or invest in, as may well be required, the nucleus of a herd of live buffaloes,” he wrote.

In his initiatives to preserve the bison inhabitants Hornaday secured several bison from the wild and introduced them back again to Washington with him. The Bison initially manufactured their visual appeal on the Countrywide Mall and lived in a pen proper at the rear of the Smithsonian Castle for additional than three a long time until finally their relocation to Rock Creek Park when the Nationwide Zoological Park was recognized in 1891.

Nowadays, two woman bison named Lucy and Gally are living at the Smithsonian’s Countrywide Zoo. They are living in diligently created reveals to make sure the comfort and ease and security of the animals though mimicking the bison’s purely natural habitat. But some of the Smithsonian Institution’s most notable bison conservation initiatives come from its ongoing collaboration with the American Prairie.

As of now, bison are mentioned as “ecologically extinct” that means they no lengthier shaping prairie biodiversity. But the American Prairie Initiative is working on restoring the genetic, ecological and behavioral qualities of wild bison by supplying them parts to roam and graze and working towards “hands off” management to let all-natural choice just take its put.

In 2005, 16 bison were being released to the prairies of Montana following a 120-yr absence. Now, there are about 744 bison which have grazed in excess of 40,000 acres of land considering that their arrival.

In accordance to the American Prairie, the grazing designs of the bison align with other organic components this kind of as fires which form the landscape and generate places of range for other animal and plant everyday living. Bison have an affect on their habitat by wallowing or rolling in the dust or mud in repeated chosen places. This creates shallow depressions which fill with water and turn into mini wetlands with exclusive plants. Furthermore, simply because of their huge bulk, bison are an significant meals supply for predators and scavengers. Soon after their deaths, their decomposing bones generate loaded patches of nitrogen and phosphorus for plant progress.

With the skill to research the effects of bison populace boost, the Smithsonian has been equipped to publish investigate about the cultural, ecological and financial rewards of tribal bison restoration.

In Ewald and Hall’s e-book, they not only search at the complicated historical past of buffalo but look to the long term with conservation endeavours and farming, which Sanger says aids the Indigenous local community shift ahead.

He stated it can be vital to recall the historical past of the bison whilst also paying notice to the positivity and sacred room it retains in quite a few Indigenous tribes. For dozens of tribes, bison are major people in creation stories and in many cases characterize new strategies, know-how and wisdom.

“The bison is typically the put people convert to for new info and know-how. It has an intriguing position,” Sanger states. “Not all native communities experience that way but a ton of different tribes attract from the wisdom of the bison.”

Connected Tales:
The Bison Returns to the Terrific American Plains
When the Bison Return, Will Their Habitat Rebound?
The Bison Is Now the Official Mammal of the United States

December 8, 2022

EU adopts Regulation for deforestation free products: effective complementary measures key for conservation – News

The Regulation prohibits the putting on the EU market of specified products if they are not made in accordance to the regional law in developing nations, or if they have led to deforestation or forest degradation. Traders and operators placing merchandise on the EU marketplace, including soy, palm oil, cocoa, beef, espresso or timber, have to assure traceability to plot amount, and ought to have evidence of compliance to these new demands.

IUCN Europe applauds the significantly-achieving Regulation which can have a constructive affect on the floor for forests, primarily if complementary measures are taken and if the EU Regulation indeed potential customers to the predicted leverage on other markets this sort of as in Asia. These markets are, for case in point, pretty critical in world soy, palm oil and timber output. To have true impact, traders’ extra actions in these markets are important.

Also, to beat deforestation on the floor, landscape-huge actions are wanted, including constructive incentives for farmers to deliver responsibly and apply extra actions for nature conservation. Partnerships are an indispensable complementary instrument for the new EU Regulation to be a impressive ingredient among others to make sure legality and conservation in commodity creation landscapes all over the world.

“Unfortunately, the Trilogue has not led to the inclusion of other susceptible ecosystems essential for biodiversity and local climate, these kinds of as “other wooded lands” such as savannahs, wetlands, peatlands or biodiversity rich grasslands”, mentioned Alberto Arroyo Schnell, Head of Plan and Programme at IUCN Europe. “No later than one particular yr soon after the Regulation enters into force the Commission plans to reassess no matter if and how to consist of “other wooded lands”, and inside two decades if other ecosystems with higher carbon storage and biodiversity benefit can be involved. It is vital to not only shield forests, but all ecosystems threatened by commodity trade as shortly as achievable.”

“It is a major step ahead to give a clear obligation to traders and operators to make sure forest security and legality in EU benefit chains”, said Heleen van den Hombergh, Senior Advisor Agro-commodities, IUCN National Committee of Netherlands. “Now it is important to build a toolbox that can provide the Regulation’s implementation, while including other values of significance to the EU, including the dependable use of pesticides, soils and h2o, and respect for human, which includes labor legal rights. Assist to accountable creation and conservation, specially in hazard landscapes, will be essential to have legitimate conservation effect on the floor and construct long run-proof landscapes”.

IUCN Europe gladly deploys its knowledge, information and equipment for the successful implementation of the EU’s conservation and local weather ambitions.

Get in touch with:

IUCN media relations, push@iucn.org

December 7, 2022

To boost landscape finance, carbon accounting standards critical

Making believability and gaining investors’ assistance for landscape assignments is crucial for conquering the hole in funding essential for climate modify adaptation. But how is this performed? As experts in carbon finance informed a webinar, it all begins with transparent benchmarks for carbon accounting and verification of a landscape project’s statements to climate benefits.

About 30 landscape practitioners participated in the 17 October 2022 session, the second in a teaching collection arranged through the World-wide Landscapes Forum’s Carbon Finance Understanding Plan. The plan aims to improve expertise of carbon finance and alternatives to finance character-based answers, which includes land-use assignments and company models that may be appropriate for producing carbon credits.

The principles and demands of carbon crediting systems are critical for demonstrating that a job is serious, measurable and long term. Carbon accounting methodologies guarantee that a particular project’s emissions reduction claims are credible, said Heather McEwan, senior manager of challenge developer engagement at Verra, a non-gain that operates the world’s leading carbon crediting plan in voluntary carbon markets (VCMs). (A VCM is an emissions-buying and selling program driven by non-public actors and initiatives relatively than by governments or regulators.)

As these kinds of, a project’s certification in a trustworthy carbon crediting system presents prospective buyers of carbon credits self-confidence that they are acquiring higher-high quality units. This encourages further expenditure and aids assignments maintain and scale up their functions. It incorporates the procedures and necessities of the verified carbon specifications system, unbiased auditing, accounting methodologies and a registry process.

“Verra delivers a trusted and strong carbon crediting system that provides quality, credibility and transparency to the voluntary carbon marketplaces,” claimed McEwan through the webinar that involved little-team classes with the professionals. “Verra also fosters innovation in this area, continually checking out new approaches for advancing urgently required local weather motion.”

Scientists measure carbon in Indonesian peatlands. Kate Evans, CIFOR — Experts measure carbon in Indonesian peatlands. Kate Evans, CIFOR

The certification system confirms if carried out activities are in reality progressing, and a ask for for issuance of credits may possibly be produced. Subsequently, verification is needed to verify that carbon added benefits claimed, and checking info, are all real. Task administration is also assessed. Ultimate methods ought to contain a workplan that guides the challenge toward registration beneath a carbon regular and, at some point, results-primarily based financing.

Uganda’s Trees for World wide Positive aspects, a Program Vivo-supported carbon-offset project, was cited by Luke Howard, complex coordinator of Plan Vivo, to reveal the quite a few measures in project carbon certification. Those people can include things like thought notes economic feasibility options chance assessments monitoring for social, environmental and neighborhood co-advantages and validation of task files by a third-celebration auditing physique. Prepare Vivo, a charitable basis, is community-targeted, centered on restoring ecosystems, gain sharing and land-use assignments on group or smallholder land and performs generally with initiatives in the International South, claimed Howard.

But to start a task, guidance is required, like steerage on attainable methodologies for carbon accounting and obtaining relevant comparisons to former equivalent assignments, contributors agreed. “It’s very critical for people to be in a position to speak to people today,” stated McEwan.

Then, a feasibility study can be a important go towards setting up no matter whether a project can even start off to access carbon marketplaces. That analyze should really include deciding on a methodology for carbon accounting, creating preliminary estimates of carbon credit probable, moreover project design tips. Nonetheless, individuals stated on-line tools to evaluate job feasibility before investing in a experienced feasibility research – and owning capacity to use such applications – are boundaries to be dealt with.

Other agencies involved in the schooling highlighted resources to aid participants put together their assignments to navigate carbon accounting processes.

The EX-Ante Carbon Balance Resource (EX-ACT), a suite of resources from the Meals and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO), enables end users to quantify the quantity of greenhouse fuel launched or sequestered from agricultural manufacturing, examine the environmental and socio-financial results of things to do from agrifood investments, and assess the affect of agricultural actions on area biodiversity, claimed Joanna Ilicic, an economist in FAO’s Agrifood Economics Division. EX-ACT can be utilized throughout several sectors and ecosystems, but it doesn’t offer you certification alone it is as a substitute available for guidance and delivers an on the internet schooling module that is now staying current, said Ilicic.

The Open up Forest Protocol (OFP) offers an open up-resource platform for amassing and uploading knowledge from forest jobs for verification, which is subsequently employed to assistance bids for funding, stated Luke Schubert, project growth lead at OFP. The protocol works about a cost-free cell software for smartphones that can be downloaded and employed offline in the field, to collect data to be uploaded afterwards when World wide web is obtainable. The OFP method is notably supportive of developers with more compact jobs, or much less knowledge.

“With this subject application, folks will have uncomplicated entry to information and will be able to get started,” extra Joe Ferris, coordinator of forest tasks for OFP. Initiatives can also get started with small amounts of details and baseline facts “as a kind of pilot,” included Ferris. “That’s a model that has worked properly for us.” A carbon credit score and success-primarily based funding incentive mechanism for forest initiatives to increase and acquire support is in growth.

The GLF webinar sequence on carbon finance carries on with classes in 2023 and aims to boost being familiar with on crucial carbon finance concepts, whilst highlighting opportunities for neighborhood motion.